Saturday, August 31, 2019

Drug Use and Delinquency Essay

Drug Use and Delinquency Response Adolescents may try drugs just to experiment or by feeling pressured into trying the drug by other family members or friends. Drug use among adolescences may lead to delinquency for the fact that an adolescents’ behavior most likely started before the start of drugs or alcohol. I will give a brief explanation on reasons for delinquency and drug use starting with reasons adolescents may start using drugs or alcohol and then describe how drug use may relate to delinquency. According to studies adolescents who experienced substance abuse gave several reasons in why they turned to drugs or alcohol such as â€Å"my friends pressured me† or â€Å"I wanted to feel good and get high,† â€Å"to have a good time with friends,† or to â€Å"escape from my problems† (Titus, Godley & White 2006, p33. ). Adolescents may also be influenced by other negative events that may be happening in the adolescent’s life. Research typically shows the reasons related to starting drugs or alcohol is peer-social behavior, dealing with negative conditions or feelings, or achieving a satisfying state (Titus, Godley & White, 2006). Studies reveal positive and negative emotions in the understanding of deviant behavior in youths’. Most teenagers generally use drugs for gratification however the adolescents who may become addicted say they are unhappy with past decisions or current situations (Brunelle, Cousineau, & Brochu, (2005). There could be many factors in how drug use becomes related to delinquency for example by having family conflict inside the house it could lead to an adolescences delinquency such as damaging property or the start of substance abuse. Research shows adolescents with less supervision and monitoring, more family conflict, and weak parent/child attachment most likely is at more risk in delinquency and drug use (Fagan, Van Horn, Antaramian & Hawkins 2011).

Friday, August 30, 2019

Bank of America Case Study Essay

Problem Statement Can Bank of America initiate, renew or terminate different sponsorship opportunities. Which of the different sponsorships will have the biggest ability to help the bank’s business segments accomplish there business objectives, and which ones could damage them. Background Bank of America was operating in 29 states, District of Colombia and 43 foreign countries, serving individual customers, small to middle market businesses and large corporations. They provided a diversified range of financial assistances, such as banking, investing and asset management. All this through three business segments: Global Consumer and Small Business Banking, Global wealth and Global Corporate and Investment Banking. The headquarters of Bank of America is located in Charlotte, North Carolina. One of the banks business strategies is to serve as a leading financial partner and advisor across all major sports. Owners, leagues and franchises can turn to them with all banking needs. The bank spent more on sponsoring sports then any other bank in the US based bank. Sports such as major and minor baseball, the PGA-tour, NASCAR and NFL. Bank of America actually grew from many smaller banks, as regional banks where acquired the bank got sport relationships along with the smaller banks; which were kept to show their commitment to serving its customers and communities. Official Bank of Baseball Since 1880 Baseball was generally considered a part of America’s heritage and also a part of Bank of America’s culture that sponsored their employee baseball teams. And in 2004 the bank became the first company ever to be designated the Official Bank of Baseball. Sports Sponsorship Philosophy and Selection Criteria In 2006 Ray Bednar joined the Bank of America as senior VP and global sponsorships executive, he was there to oversee the strategy and activation deployment for the company’s expansive sport sponsorships portfolio. His largest responsibility lied with the application of more difficult and  explicit business criteria, beyond his employment to the traditional marketing/promotional considerations and making sponsorships decisions. Bednar explained: We are a Bank. If we sponsor, we expect banking relationships. We are concerned about getting banking business instead of just generating brand awareness and brand association, or generating more retail traffic. Sponsorships for Bank of America is ultimately a banking business decision- a decision to help our line of business. NASCAR With a broad reach as 1800 racing events and more than 110 tracks in 36 states it is ranked number one corporate involvement and per-event attendance, and number two in television viewership. Given Bank of America’s long involvement with NASCAR, they could continue to expand their association with the sport and benefit and build excitement for fans across the country. But is this an appropriate and effective platform for targeting multiple customer segments. U.S Olympic Committee The banks involvement with the Olympic team gores back to 1921. But in 1992 another bank, Bank America became the Official Bank Sponsor of the U.S Olympic team. What Bank of America now faced was whether the USOC and the Olympic Games remained a good strategic fit with the bank? Should the bank renew its sponsorship beyond its 2008 commitment? Would global reach associate well with the banks philosophy and selection criteria? Dallas Cowboys Bank of America had been involved in the financing of the Dallas Cowboys. Bednar faced the decision of whether or not to renew the sponsorship with the NFL-team, how had to consider on how the return on investment on objectives approaches could be applied. Bank of America PGA tournaments Two of their major sponsorships in golf were the Bank of America Championship  in the Boston area and the Bank of America Colonial in Fort Worth, Texas. They recognized the risk of losing the relationships with club members, but not as enough to justify the continued investment. How could the implement this exit strategy and still maintain existing banking relationships Recommendations The name of the company clearly states who the costumers should be. My recommendations would be to focus on the sponsorships within the America. NASCAR, NFL and Baseball are great opportunities to create relationships with their costumers. They might even try to become the Official bank of NFL one day. With that said I think the bank should try and sponsor less of the global sporting events such as the Olympic committee. The PGA tour, while it is played in the US it is televised in the whole world and since they are not reaching towards that market, I think less sponsorship should be put in this event as well. As for the Chicago marathon they should sell the event but stay as sponsor. Question If Bank of America would like to go global, would they have to change their name to something less patriotic?

Thursday, August 29, 2019

Cold War Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Cold War - Essay Example There was, however, also a policy in place to never give ground throughout the Cold War, meaning that there were frequent proxy conflicts throughout the world in order for either country gain an ideological advantage. These included proxy conflicts in Afghanistan, Vietnam, Korea as the best known examples. The United States also engaged in huge industrial efforts, to force the Soviet Union to match them – things like the Space Program and the Interstate highway system. These proxy conflicts, however, also caused many problems for the United States. Arming the Mujahedeen in Afghanistan, for instance, led to those same arms later being used against America, while the proxy conflicts in Vietnam significantly reduced America’s attachment to fighting wars and reduced national moral. Furthermore, America supported essentially any regime that would aid in the fight against Communism, regardless of the consequences. This included the rather dictatorial Shah of Iran, who was the n overthrown by a revolution that included a huge amount of Anti-American sentiment. To this day America has to deal with a dangerous and Anti-American regime because of its habit of supporting dictators who had political moods that aligned with what the United States wanted during the Cold War. These are two types of blowback: one in which the US government faced international pressure because of its international intervention, and one in which its own populace raised against it in attempts to change the course of foreign intervention. The latter kind set rise to all sorts of things, including the Kent State riots, while also giving further impetus to the civil rights movements. The Cold War was the defining conflict that shaped America throughout the 20th century. It had an impact on every part of American life, from people who went off to wars to everyday American who lived under the threat of the bomb. Though it has ended, its shadow on American politics lingers to the present d ay. 1. US foreign policy in the interwar years was dominated by two principles: the Monroe doctrine, which indicated that the United States had a sphere of influence over the Americas that no other country could influence, and a significant policy of isolationism on the international stage. This was not complete isolationism, as the United States still had significant trading partners, but military isolationism was relatively extreme. Examples of this isolationism include America’s failure to join the League of Nations, which doomed the enterprise from the start. It was understandable that the United States wanted to be so isolationist, considering the history of European squabbles that could so easily engulf the young country if it were to get involved. 2. The Civil Rights movement was a movement, led by Black people from the South of the United States, to end oppression based on race and to gain basic liberties enjoyed by people of other races. Its roots can be traced back to the civil war, after which it was officially illegal to bar people from voting on the basis of race. Many Southern States, however, put together a series of laws and acts of intimidation that still prevented blacks from enjoying equal rights and protections. Lynching still occurred, it was still illegal for a black person and a white

Wednesday, August 28, 2019

Obesity as a Special Need - The Difference of Relation between Body-Es Case Study

Obesity as a Special Need - The Difference of Relation between Body-Esteem and Self-Esteem of Obese and Normal Children - Case Study Example However what has emerged recently is that the problem is not restricted to the adult population. Children and adolescents are showing increasing signs of obesity. Concern against the rise in obesity and overweight have been raised by paediatricians, health professionals and the media. The risks of obesity for children between 6 and 11 years have increased from approximately 8% in the 1970s to approximately 13% at the beginning of the new millennium (Klaczynski, Goold & Mudry 2004). Among adolescents aged 12–19 it tripled, from 5 to 16% between 1980 and 2002 (Classen & Hokayem, 2005). Obesity in young people can be considered a special need because the attitude towards obesity influences the self-esteem of a child and self-esteem influence the performance of an individual (Byrne, 1999). Obesity usually starts during childhood and continues into adulthood through adolescence. It has dramatically increased during the past two decades and it is now essential to gain a better under standing of this condition as it is a barrier to the development of the individual. This will help to develop a support system which is essential to enable the obese to overcome feelings of low self-esteem and body-esteem. These impact the psychosocial functioning of an individual which is a barrier to development interventions (Dreyer & Egan, 2008). An obese colleague at work often turns up late for class and suffers from low-esteem. She attributes it to her overweight, which makes her feel tired and making it a great effort to move around. This is a childhood obesity and though she has been trying to lose weight, she has not been able to. This has had a negative impact on her psychologically and she feels disliked by other students and ‘different’ which makes her feel slightly marginalized. As a result, her self-esteem is low and she is unable to communicate effectively with her peers.  Ã‚  

Tuesday, August 27, 2019

Leadership Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Leadership Analysis - Essay Example This happens to be the informal power structure that might at times demonstrate as exercising extreme influence compared to the formal one (Miller, 2008). Any chief nursing officer exercising formal power in a health care centre tends to apply it on a day to day basis within the process of performing its work (Fairholm, 2009). However, the informal normally apply it when it fits their own interest. This leaves a person wondering what this thing called power refers to; apparently, this is a person’s control or influence on the behavior of other persons with or without their approval (Fairholm, 2009). In other words, this is the ability of having a say within organizational doings directly or indirectly, thereby serving the interests of an individual or a group (Miller, 2008). Therefore, power happens to be an inherent element in any health care, which features significantly within the process of decision making. Owing to their work relationships, some chief nursing officers are capable of exercising excessive level of power of their formal job description (Morgan, 2006). Health care centers normally have an organizational chart listing the relationship, as well as ranks of positions in the organization (Fairholm, 2009). ... nts, charisma and characteristics of the health care center’s individual members thus becoming the informal heads of the organization (Miller, 2008). In this case, they tend to play a significant task in the efficacy of the health care, since they might at times exert more power compared to the formal authorities. Therefore, it is essential for the chief nursing officer to acknowledge these individuals early and by ensuring that they get utilized in benefitting the organization (Fairholm, 2009). Informal power is intrinsic in all health care centers while playing a significant background role within the smooth functioning or even the interference of that organization (Fairholm, 2009). It is necessary for the management to comply with the fact that formal power might on many occasions be submissive to informal power. Apparently, this is a realism that has to be recognized importantly, directed for the organization’s benefit. There is a need to empower the chief nursing o fficer so as he or she can assume management roles from the transition to the hierarchical model this is a demonstration of their professional growth, as well as development (Higgs, 2008). At every unit level, it is essential to lobby new leadership thereby allowing staff at this level to continue doing peer review, together with unit-based council management in regards to unit governance issues. Considering that our leader, who is also the chief nursing officer, has guided his department ahead while, within the throes of the present chaos in health care, he has developed, while, at the same time, used his power basis, both formal and informal, as an individual while also as a leader (Higgs, 2008). Luckily, he has clinical expertise i.e. expert power, which makes him a member of the executive team in

Monday, August 26, 2019

Socrates Discourse Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Socrates Discourse - Essay Example In that context Socrates classifies his oppressors to be as much enshrined in the machinations of the past as in the present. Socrates unravels the ploys of his detractors to attribute his fame and name to some esoteric ability to perform mysterious and unnatural feats. As per Socrates, his fame could be deemed to be the direct outcome of a wisdom that is natural and human and therefore not beyond the aspirations of any human. As per the words of Socrates, his present plight originated from his honest and bold audacity to question the validity and truthfulness of the elites of his times, be it the politicians, seers, poets, artisans or teachers. The trial of Socrates originated not from some personal sin or crime, but rather from the daring of the accused to indulge in a free play of ideas, thereby making the populace see through their proponents’ so called wisdom and sensibility. As per the Apology, the only crime Socrates seems to have committed is to challenge the status qu o of the elites of his times. In

Sunday, August 25, 2019

Leadership and mentoring Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4750 words

Leadership and mentoring - Essay Example The effects of leadership decisions on organizational growth are many.In fact, appropriate leadership practices can highly enhance the performance of a particular organization, an issue that needs to be taken into consideration when having to evaluate the role of leaders in establishing and promoting organizational strategies. In any case, leadership has been proved to be a critical concept for organizations operating in different industries. However, in most cases, the ability of leaders to promote effective strategies is doubted; failures in providing guidelines or making accurate provisions in regard to the potential needs of a specific plan seem to be common aspects of the leadership worldwide. Current study reviews the characteristics and the requirements of leadership as compared to mentoring. Reference is particularly made to the potential interaction between leadership and mentoring and the role of its of these concepts in the success of plans, either in the short or the long term. Both these concepts, leadership and mentorship, are explored in the context of the business environment. At the same time, the personal perceptions on leadership are presented. Using the example of leadership in work, the personal responses to the needs of such a role are described and explained. It is proved that leadership can highly affect the success of projects in all sectors; moreover, the personal experiences on leadership, as evaluated through an appropriate theoretical framework, lead to the following assumption: leadership and mentoring have a key role in the success of organizational plans. Moreover, the involvement of leadership and mentoring in the context of a business can be made clear in all parts of the business; in the workplace leadership is critical for the development of an effective relationship between the employee and the employer. In the long term, the success of leaders is necessarily evaluated by their competencies and experience, but also by their willingness to support all aspects of their organization’s activities without setting their own interest as a priority. 2. Literature review on leadership and mentoring 2.1 Definitions The development of leadership has been related to a series of different sectors; in fact, leadership has been involved in many social, economic and political activities. According to Daft and Lane (2008) the value of leadership as a social phenomenon has been identified quite early, even from the ancient times. However, it was just in ‘the twentieth century that scientific research on leadership first appeared’ (Daft and Lane 2008). A key characteristic of leadership is its complexity. More specifically, due to the high range of activities in which it is involved, leadership has been described using different criteria (Daft and Lane 2008). A common definition of leadership is the following one: leadership is ‘an influence relationship among leaders and followers who intend re al changes and outcomes that reflect their shared purposes’ (Daft and Lane 2008, p.4). In other words, leadership is defined by the perceptions of leaders and followers, as these perceptions are likely to affect the style of the leaders but also the relationship between leaders and followers. The above definition has an important implication: no reference is made to the potential independency of leaders from their followers neither to the independency of the latter from the former. In other words, leaders and followers are considered as fully committed to the achievement of certain common goals, a fact that cannot be verified by the social and economic practice. In fact, many leaders tend to decide independently, without being influenced by the percepti

Saturday, August 24, 2019

Ethical Challenges Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Ethical Challenges - Essay Example Section II. Background Information on Each of the Organizations II.1 The Society of Professional Journalists Background information gathered from the official website of the Society of Professional Journalists (SPJ) has identified its founding date in 1909 (Society of Professional Journalists, 2013). Its existence is embodied in the simple goal of working to â€Å"improve and protect journalism†¦ (and is) dedicated to encouraging the free practice of journalism and stimulating high standards of ethical behavior† (Society of Professional Journalists, 2013, par. 1). It reveals a total of about 9,000 members globally and reportedly operates with an annual budget of about $1.7 million (Society of Professional Journalists, 2013). II.2 The International Association of Business Communicators The International Association of Business Communicators (IABC) was noted to have been founded in 1970 and was designed to provide â€Å"a professional network of about 15,000 business commu nication professionals in over 80 countries† (International Association of Business Communicators, 2013, par. 1). The organization has boasted of having been able to establish 100 chapters globally and expects the number to continue manifesting an increasing trend. II.3 American Marketing Association The American Marketing Association (AMA) was reported to have been established in 1937 and has consistently grown â€Å"with over 30,000 members who work, teach and study in the field of marketing across the globe† (American Marketing Association, 2013, par. 1). The organization’s mission was explicitly stipulated towards â€Å"leading the practice, teaching and development of marketing knowledge worldwide† (American Marketing Association: Our Mission, 2013, par. 1). Section III. Tabular Listing of Ethical Issues Ethical Issues SPJ IABC AMA Preamble (purpose of the code) For public enlightenment Because professional communicators affect the lives of people To act as stewards in promoting highest standards of ethics Honesty Through seeking the truth and reporting it â€Å"fostering the free flow of essential information in accord with the public interest† (IABC, 2013, par. 7) â€Å"– to be forthright in dealings with customers and stakeholders† (AMA, 2009, p. 2) Do No Harm â€Å"Ethical journalists treat sources, subjects and colleagues as human beings deserving of respect† (SPJ, 1996, p. 1) â€Å"refrain from taking part in any undertaking which the communicator considers to be unethical† (IABC: Articles, 2013, par. 5) â€Å"avoiding harmful actions or omissions by embodying high ethical standards and adhering to all applicable laws and regulations in the choices we make† (AMA, 2009, p. 2) Acting Independently Avoiding conflicts of interest (SPJ, 1996) â€Å"do not accept undisclosed gifts or payments† (IABC: Articles, 2013, par. 10) Through ethical values of fairness and transparency (AMA , 2009) Be Accountable Provide accurate information and solicit public’s response (SPJ, 1996) â€Å"disseminate accurate information and promptly correct any erroneous communication† (IABC: Articles, 2013, par. 2) Through the ethical value of citizenship, responsibility, and transparency (AMA, 2009) Other Ethical Values Credibility, Freedom of Speech, Cultural Sensitivity, Conformity to Legal Laws, Acknowledging the words of others, Confidentiality (IABC, 2013)

Friday, August 23, 2019

Innovation Planning and Design Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Innovation Planning and Design Paper - Essay Example This paper seeks to discuss innovation planning and design so as to maintain stability, productivity and profitability in industries. Innovation planning process is not easy since creativity must be adopted in any company or in the market place. This is because is a firm does not involve innovation plan, this means that one must maximize the creativity of ideas so that the ideas that one has are put in place and they can only implemented, if one utilizes innovation plan. If one is a manager in any organization, the first thing to emulate is the goal that one wants the company to achieve. As a manager, one must state the goal or the problem that is going to be addressed and then have a particular target group. This means that one must be prepared for the project since the responsibility is not on the management but it is on the entire organization. A project that is started in any organization depicts a life cycle where all the entire organization has to be involved and be part and parcel of the project. A project should not be restricted to a specific project team since other member within the organization can contribute to innovation planning process by providing resourceful ideas or feedback. Resources and the basic tools needed and capturing of ideas must be available and have assurance that the company will be able to provide the required resources any time they are needed (Davila, 2006). The facilitators must be considered accordingly since without them will mean that innovation planning will not be achieved thus certain amount of fund must be set aside. Time is a limited factor in a project which one is focused at developing and implementing. This means that an individual must consider time to capture and develop ideas. In this step since one is not interested in implementation, then one should not take a lot of time to capture and develop ideas. As an

A journal article in the family and consumer science

A journal in the family and consumer science - Article Example Finally, a strong balance of personal reaction as well as summarized information would be included. The article entitled â€Å"Promoting Partnerships for Healthy Youth† was written by Gulley (2011) and published in the Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences Education. The author clearly stated that the purpose of the project was â€Å"to deliver a school-based health promotion program†¦ (where) the aim of the program was to increase nutrition knowledge, promote a healthy body mass index and encourage a healthy body image among children in grades four through seven, residing in a small rural community in southwest Virginia† (Gulley, 2011, p. 47). Through providing a theoretical background that establishes the need for school-based health promotion, as evidenced by the reported incidences of obesity and prevalence of overweight children, Gulley examined school-based interventions to determine their effectiveness prior to proposed implementation. The key elements present in the discourse used the joint efforts of university and community partnership as the main agencies to promote health and enhance awareness of school children on the relevance of an identified program, the Healthy Weights for Healthy Kids (HWHK). As revealed, the HWHK â€Å"a school-based health education program, developed by Cooperative Extension Specialists at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, which focuses on promoting positive attitudes and behaviors related to food, drinks, physical activity, and body image (Serrano, 2003)† (Gulley, 2011, p. 48). There were six identified key topics from which the HWHK’s curriculum was premised and guided by the Experiential Learning Model, to wit: â€Å"(1) Smart Foods, (2) Smart Choices, (3) Smart Drinks, (4) Smart Snacks, (5) Smart Activities and (6) Smart Image† (Gulley, 2011, p. 48). By measuring students’ knowledge on attitudes

Thursday, August 22, 2019

Intro to Finance Essay Example for Free

Intro to Finance Essay An efficient financial system promotes intermediaries that successfully link â€Å"savers† from â€Å"borrowers† (Mankiw). There are two widely-known financial intermediaries namely the banks and mutual funds. Banks are highly accessible to the general public are generally more cost advantageous that direct lending. Generally, the banks main purpose in the economy is to take in deposits from savers and â€Å"use these deposits to make loans to people who want to borrow† (Mankiw, N. Gregory, 2001, Principles of Economics, p. 557). Banks incur costs by paying interest on these deposits and earn from these by charging higher interest rates on loan borrowers. Second to this, banks play an important role in the economy as they â€Å"facilitate the purchases of goods and services by allowing people to write checks against their deposits† (Mankiw, N. Gregory, 2001, Principles of Economics, p. 557). In this manner, the economy benefits from banks by this accessible medium of exchange. Unlike stocks or bonds which are not as immediate, checks make it easier for the public to exercise their monetary transactions. Mutual funds, on the other hand, are institutions that use the proceeds of selling shares in buying portfolios of stocks and bonds where they derive their profits. The financial markets become more accessible and efficient because mutual funds allow people with small savings to become owners and creditors of numerous companies. Also, mutual funds allow its shareholders the benefit of risk diversification wherein a single fund can carry a roster of diverse portfolios in stocks and bonds. A broker can either be an individual or a corporate entity that earns a fee-based profit by performing buy and sell orders from investors and/ or clients. A good example of this is a brokerage firm that specializes in trading company stocks and securities. A broker’s main functions in the financial market would include basic execution of buying and selling shares, and financial advisory to clients regarding the management of their shares/ stocks. With the emergence of automation and popular online brokerage firms, traditional brokers have redefined their place in the industry. Most popular online brokerage firms such as Ameritrade and E*Trade offer lower fees to investors as opposed to traditional brokers. Financial and Investment Advisory are also automated online via innovative investment software tools. With information becoming more accessible because of the internet, traditional brokers are now transitioning into online brokers wherein online orders are still routed to and monitored by them; and with reduced client-interface for advisories.

Wednesday, August 21, 2019

How Effective Are Drip Irrigation Systems

How Effective Are Drip Irrigation Systems The article evaluates the efficiency, effectiveness, social, economic and environmental impacts of the drip irrigation system. The drip irrigation system has the potential to increase the agricultural productivity and also to reduce water usage required for irrigation. It is a system of pipes and tubing located under the soil. Water is passed through these pipes which end at near the roots of the plants. This makes the water loss minimal. Initial stage is designing the system and its installation follows it. The article states the advantages and disadvantages of the system and also cites evidence with regard to the social, economic and environmental aspects. Poverty is one of the primary concerns the world faces in its road to development. Eradication of poverty tends to be the prime aims of governments worldwide. Lack of proper nutrition is a major cause contributing to poverty. Improving agricultural standards can help in producing more food and thus counter the lack of food factor. One way to improve agricultural standards is to develop the irrigation methods used. Irrigation is closely related to poverty. Irrigation benefits the poor through higher production, higher yields, low risk of crop failure and higher and year round farm and non-farm employment. Irrigation leads to high value market oriented agricultural production [1]. However, in developing countries like India, the agricultural sector is heavily dependent on the south-west monsoons. In view of the rising temperatures worldwide due to global warming and changes of weather patterns associated with it, dependence on rains is not always a possible solution. Failure of proper rains can cripple the agricultural sector which can lead to an overall rise in poverty. Thus efficient methods of irrigation need to be developed. The drip irrigation system is one such method of irrigation that is being utilised. Drip irrigation is water saving, efficient and effective watering system .The article focuses on the different aspects of the drip irrigation system, its contribution in poverty alleviation and the social economic and environmental impacts of this technology. Subsurface drip irrigation or SDI is another way of terming a drip irrigation system. As stated by C. Shock, drip irrigation is the slow even application of low-pressure water to soil and plants using plastic tubing placed near the plantsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ root zone [8]. Water is supplied to the soil at very low rates from the system of the plastic tubing pipes which are fitted with emitters at the ends. Therefore loss of water through evaporation, water run-off and percolation is minimized to a great extent. Also water contact with the stems, leaves and fruits of the plant is reduced which helps in prevention of formation of disease on the plant. Since the tubing is buried under the soil, it is less at risk of damage due to weeding and cultivation activities. Designing a subsurface drip system requires an experienced qualified designer. As G. Harris has stated, proper hydraulic design is the initial step in installing a successful SDI system [5]. This will ensure that the system effectively deals with the constraints imposed by the crop and soil characteristics, field size, topography, water supply and shape. The system must be capable of meeting the crop water need during the peak water demand times. A block or zone, which is the portion of the field that can be watered at the same time, is determined by the characteristics of the drip tubing selected. The optimal tube spacing is determined by the soil characteristics and the depth of tube placement. If the installations are too deep it will restrict the availability of surface applied nutrients limits the effectiveness of the system for crop germination. Adequate flushing velocities must be allowed for in the design to remove sediments from the emitters. This helps to prevent the SDI sy stem from getting clogged and increases the systemà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s life. Following the designing comes the installation part of the SDI system. Proper installation ensures that the system performs optimally and it also determines the life of the system. Installation is done in sites which have not been cropped recently as insect activity or weedy areas could destroy the pipes within days of installation [6].Initially location of the tubing is marked out. A subsoiler can be used or if more accurate positioning is needed, GPS can also be used. Specialized injectors are available for installation of the SDI pipes. The power and water source limitations are to be considered during the installation of the system. Filters are also used which helps in removing particles and keeps the emitters from getting clogged. The major feature of this system that makes it highly desirable is that the water use efficiency will be better compared to other systems or methods of irrigation. Evidence put forward by C.R. Camp show that drip irrigation systems implemented in Virginia require 30% less water compared to sprinkler irrigation for cultivating corn [3]. For cotton, the water usage was reduced significantly by 40%. Implementation of the system in Hawaii helped the farmers to get a greater yield than when using sprinkler irrigation system [4]. Additional advantages include: Drip irrigation systems are suited to farms having uneven topography or soil texture. Precise application of nutrients is possible. Timely application of herbicides, insecticides and fungicides is possible. The drip irrigation system can be automated. Irrigation can be carried out day and night regardless of the wind, daylight availability or other cultivation activities [7]. The SDI system can be used for fertilizing. Nutrients can be supplied in a sustained way, and regulated in rate and composition, according to the crop requirements [7]. The hydraulics help in easy water control the number of points provides excellent uniformity of supply. There are a number of disadvantages for the drip irrigation system. Initial investment is quite high for this system. Root development is limited and hence resulting in root rot and dust problems [7]. The emitters can get clogged frequently and cleaning it is a costly and time consuming process. Accumulation of salts might occur at the interface between the wet and dry zones of the soil. It is generally accepted that irrigation can transform society as well as land and landscapes. Drip irrigation has brought about a number of positive and negative social impacts. It helps in alleviating poverty in irrigated areas, minimizes the differential distribution of benefits across farmers and increases the social benefits [7]. The positive effect it has brought on the demographics of the Waitaki valley has helped arrest the population decline [9]. The additional population would not only strengthen the social structure and networks but also increase economic growth. Thus services such as health and education would become more viable. On the other hand, automated drip irrigation systems tend to require less labour and in low wage economies, where job opportunities lag behind growth in labour force owing to rise in population, reducing hired labour can be socially problematic [10]. This leads to further unemployment. Considering the economic aspects, drip irrigation systems have helped farmers to attain better profits due to higher yield. Farmers can conserve water more and also increase the productivity of their farms. The yield of cotton increased by 21% in Dalby and Moree while in Lucerne, yield improvement was between 13-34% [5]. The profits obtained in tomato cultivation in California were about 867 to 1493 dollars more [12]. Water usage was reduced by 45% for corn cultivation in the Great Plains in USA [13]. In spite of all these a major hindrance in the implementation of the system is the high initial cost. Designing and installation requires qualified people and moreover the cost and time for maintenance of the system is also on the higher side. However in the long run farmers can make up for the high initial costs with the higher amount of yield they obtain. The drip irrigation helps in improving the soil surface and the environment. It allows pre treated coalbed methane waters to flow into the root zone of an agricultural field which minimized environmental impacts by storing detrimental salts in the vadose zone [11]. It reduces off-farm movements of fertilizers and pollutants and improves the water use efficiency of irrigated agriculture [3]. It offers potential for increased water and nitrate fertilizer efficiency and decreases ground water contamination by NO3 [14]. The certain negative traits that the system has on the environment are that root rot may occur and levels of salinity rises. Root development is affected leading to insufficient protection against lack of water and poor root anchorage [7]. Overall, the drip irrigation system is an effective way of irrigation. It saves on water usage and allows farmers to increase their farm output. The increased outputs helps counter the rise in food demand and helps the poorer sections of the society with more food at cheaper prices. Evidence presented in the article show the increased crop yield. Even thought the technology comes at a higher price, the effects of implementing it will be long lasting and positive.

Tuesday, August 20, 2019

Social Policy Essays New Deal Policy

Social Policy Essays New Deal Policy Labours New Deal policy is a strategy to assist many people to obtain vocational skills and find employment. Following an overview of British Welfare Ideology history, the specific attributes of the New Deal policy will be critically reviewed with illustration of how the policy typifies New Labour Welfare Ideology. A. Welfare Ideologies of the Past A brief overview. (a) The Elizabethan Poor Law The legal relief of poverty was first introduced after the demise of compulsory charity that followed the reformation. There were initial parish registers of the poor in 1552 and compulsory fund raising, through to 1601 with the advent of the Elizabethan Poor Law (43 Eliz I Cap. 2). This law oversaw the levying of taxes for the distribution of money and food to the poor but there was a heavy emphasis on hierarchy and charity as the premise for relief. The notion of a long term solution would have affected the fabric of social distinction, and as class was integral to the ideology of the time, long term solutions for the poor beyond handouts were never conceived of. Despite this, the system was humane as the homeless and infirm were provided with indoor relief in custom built accommodations and the outdoor relief was made available to those in their own homes. This ideology continued throughout a number of adaptations to the act, which included the Settlement Act 1662, the Gilberts Ac t 1782 and the Speenhamland System of 1795. (b) From 1834 to the Welfare State a changing Britain The Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 introduced a centralised system of administration of funds and benefits for the poor, and, more notoriously, the workhouse. It was the ideology of the new law that no relief would be made available to those not living inside these workhouses (Poor Law Amendment Act 1834, XXVI). However, the face of Britain was changing and more and more reforms were being brought in to improve the state of public health and education. By the beginning of the 20th century, the Liberal Democrats had set in motion the foundations of the modern welfare state with new laws that were outside the poor law. These included free school meals under the Education Act 1907 and the National Insurance Act 1911. Piecemeal external poor law Acts, designed to deal with specific issues, eventually led to the outright abolition of the Poor Law in 1948 with the National Assistance Act. The concept for this law was for the state to assist all needy UK nationals from the Cradle to the Grave but the sheer cost implications and the rise in numbers of the long term unemployed meant that the New Labour Government of 1997 was faced with a deficit of funds for a dwindling welfare system. When New Labour came to power, there were nearly 2 million unemployed and. In order to rectify this, the Party melded together the 20th century ideology of bettering ones self with the original nurture concepts of post war Britain. B. The New Labour Solution of New Deal A Critical Review 1. An explanation of the New Deal Policy (a) What is New Deal and how does it work? The New Deal policy has two main characteristics. In the first place, it is a Welfare to Work strategy (Department of Employment and Pensions, 2004, at p 1). This therefore means that the policy is to assist individuals, who are on benefits, to make the transition from a dependency on the State to independency through work. The second part of this scheme is also to tie in training with employment in order to achieve long term employment and progression within a chosen industry. Further to this, unlike the Skill Seekers scheme of the Conservative Party, New Deal is aimed at assisting individuals in all age groups and not just school leavers (Department of Employment and Pensions, 2004, at p 1). (b) Has the New Deal Policy been successful? (i) Positive Statistics! The successes of the New Deal Policy are set out at the beginning of the Department of Employment and Pensions report, Building on New Deal: Local Solutions Meeting Individual Needs. Here the Government claims, through its New Deal for Young People (NDYP) to have halved long-term youth unemployment, reduced long term unemployment, including in the over 25s of the New Deal 25 Plus scheme (ND25 plus), by nearly 75% and for those who are over 50 years of age, New Labour professes an addition of over 110,000 individuals into the workforce (Department of Employment and Pensions, at p 2). While it is clear that statistics do not present the full picture and while they may be enhanced through strategic surveying, it is clear that the New Deal Policy has nevertheless proved to be a success in that it has placed many people, who would otherwise have been on benefits, back into the work force. (ii) Room for improvement? Following the first two terms of the New Labour Government, a team at the London School of Economics concluded that while Blairs administration had lifted large swathes of individuals out of poverty, there was, by 2004, a greater gap between the top and bottom ends of the household income brackets (The Guardian, 2004, Target Areas). There has however been a marked negative response, which professes that the New Labour Welfare reforms are nowhere near as successful as those currently in operation in the USA (Smith, D, Online). The Government has acknowledged that the New Deal Policy requires to provide greater assistance to those groups who are referred to as having multiple barriers to work (Department for Work and Pensions, 2004, at p 2). These groups include ethnic minorities, lone parents, the disabled, people aged over 50 and those with few qualifications. 2. How and Why does New Deal typify the New Labour Welfare Ideology? (a) New Labour Welfare Ideology The Third Way? The New Deal Policy of welfare-to-work is clearly set out within New Labours 1997 Election Manifesto and is seen as a key part of New Labours Third Way policy, which is phrased by the acronym PAP (Pragmatism and Populism). This is arguably a distinct approach to Welfare that loosely professes to place itself within the centre to centre-left of present ideologies political spectrum. However, critics argue that the Third Way is not distinctive but instead bears greater characteristics of the political Right than the Centre or Centre Left (Powell, M, at p 41). (b) How and Why New Deal is epitomised by New Labour Ideology (i) Why The divided opinion over the designation of the Third Way into the New Deal policy creates difficulty for the task of illustrating New Deal as a typical example of the Third Way. Therefore, it is better to abandon this concept in order to ascertain the true essence of New Labour Welfare ideology, which is clearly set out in the 1997 Manifesto. The phrase Welfare-to-Work appears frequently throughout this document and is a clear and short summation of New Labours ideology, which is that the Welfare State, far from facilitating a mere basic financial need to survive, is also a support network of services that are to be actively utilised by job seekers in order to place them back into work. Therefore, New Deal, far from merely typifying this ideology, is the very mechanism by which it is realised. This is clarified by the statement made by Andrew Smith MP in his summation of the aims of the New Deal Policy. He states that New Labour is: redesigning the contract between the citizen and the welfare state to one that is active and not passive based on rights as well as responsibilities. We are ending the blight of long term unemployment and the cycle of poverty. (Rt Hon Andrew Smith, MP, May 2004, Department for Work and Pensions, at p iii) Therefore, it seems that the intention of New Labour is that New Deal represents a departure, both from total, long term dependency on the State and virtual abandonment of the impoverished. In other works, it is the tool to progress from Welfare to Work. (ii) How New Deal assists people back into work by providing an interventional service throughout the job seeking stage. As explained above, not only are there separate strategies for the various age groups such as New Deal for Young People, New Deal 25 Plus and New Deal for the over 50s. In addition, New Labour is currently focusing on the development of tailor made care for groups with specific needs, and as also explained above, these include the low skilled, ethnic minorities, lone parents and the disabled. This strategy of focusing on particular groups facilitates a greater efficiency in the carrying out of New Labours Welfare Policy of Welfare-to-Work. Conclusion Analysis of the history of British Welfare Ideology illustrates that New Labours key departure is to create a far more interventional approach to welfare that is designed to ensure that unemployment is strictly temporary. While it is far more likely that this departure is economically as opposed to humanitarianly based, New Deal does far more than merely typify the Welfare-to-Work Ideology as it is the vary basis upon which this ideology is realised. Bibliography Legislation Elizabethan Poor Law 1601 Settlement Act 1662 Gilberts Act 1782 Speenhamland System of 1795. Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 Education Act 1907 National Insurance Act 1911 National Assistance Act 1948 Text Books Clarke J, Cochrane A and Smart C, 1992, Ideologies of Welfare: from dreams to disillusion, London: Hutchison Education Hills J and Stewart, K, 2004, A More Equal Society, New Labour, Poverty, Inequality and Exclusion, Policy Press Articles Powell, M, New Labour and the Third Way in the British Welfare State: A New and Distinct Approach?, Critical Social Policy, Vol. 20, No. 1, 39-60 (2000) Government and Labour Party Publications Labour Party Manifesto, 1997 Department for Work and Pensions Report, 2004, Building on New Deal: Local Solutions Meeting Individual Needs, [Available Online] At: www.dwp.gov.uk/publications/dwp/2004/buildingonnewdeal/mainreport.pdf Web Resource Smith, David, Welfare Work and Poverty, Publication Commentary, [Available Online] At: http://www.economicsuk.com/original/research/david-wwp.html

Monday, August 19, 2019

Free Essay: 17th century Life Exposed in Nathaniel Hawthornes The Scarlet Letter :: Scarlet Letter essays

17th century Life Exposed in The Scarlet Letter The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne expresses the aspects of relationships, religion, community, discipline and punishment in the puritan community of 17th century Boston. Relationships between men and women were very constrained and that is what made adultery such a bad sin in the eyes of everyone in the community. Religion seemed to govern over all, people would look up to reverends and the community believed that fate was their destiny. Public discipline and punishment were used to discourage everyone else from committing the same crime or sin as the offending "criminal" did. The community was to follow the beliefs of god and to do their duties the best they could, yet were there to criticize and punish all who disobeyed the religion or laws. In 17th century Boston every thing was very strict and everyone was expected to follow the laws, which makes Hester's sin such an excellent example of the beliefs of that time period. The first scaffold scene is very important because the scene sums up the beliefs of the general public at that time, and gives a prospective of what Hester Prynne must deal with. In the beginning of chapter two the scene is descri bed as "it could have betokened nothing short of the anticipated execution of some noted culprit,"(47) showing that the whole town was there for a ruthless public punishment. The crowd was not there for an execution though, but there for a public punishment of Hester Prynne who had committed adultery. A townsman describes Hester's punishment to a stranger as, "they have doomed Mistress Prynne to stand only a space of three hours on the platform of the pillory, and then thereafter, for the remainder of her natural life, to wear a mark of shame upon her bosom."(58) This scene shows the weight of values and morals upon society in the 17th century and how public punishment was not only used as punishment but as a way to discourage others from committing the same crime. The community was key in this punishment because it helped alienate Hester and further her pain. The punishment brings forth Hester's underlying pain, "[Hester] sent forth a cry she turned her eyes downward at the scarlet letter, and even touched it with her finger, to assure herself that the infant and the shame were real.

Sunday, August 18, 2019

Legalizing Physician-Assisted Suicide Essay -- Argumentative Essay

Physician-assisted suicide should be a legal option, if requested, for terminally ill patients. For decades the question has been asked and a clear answer has yet to surface. It was formed out of a profound commitment to the idea that personal end-of-life decisions should be made solely between a patient and a physician. Can someone's life be put into an answer? Shouldn't someone's decision in life be just that; their decision? When someone has suffered from a car accident, or battled long enough from cancer, shouldn't the option be available? Assisted suicide shouldn't be seen as cheating death, but as a way to pay homage to the life once lived. As far as including the mentally challenged in this equation, I am against it. The mentally challenged, although less likely to grasp information, still has the physical awareness to grow. It can be subdued with medicine and psychotherapy. From personal experience I am a witness of being around mentally challenged adults who love life regar dless of their conditions. Most don't have the ability to express a request such as life or death. Living life is a daily task just like it is for healthy citizens. Most if not all mentally challenged people aren't in any pain throughout their entire life. For this they shouldn't be targeted for assisted suicide. Death is an occurrence in life, whether it's unexpected or expected, it can't be cheated nor can it be avoided. The terminally ill should have the option to end their suffering with dignity. Assisted- physician suicide also goes by many names such as euthanasia. 'Euthanasia' rings an enormous bell as the same structure used during the holocaust in the 1940s. The difference between now and then is the innocent lives lost because of their inc... ...end ones terminally ill life should be up to the patient and no one else. Religion plays a major part on why the law hasn't been pasted yet. Just like the hippocratic oath, religion doesn't prohibit suicide in any way. One of the most basic commandments is â€Å"Thou shall not kill.† But no one knows where humans go once they past so it seems hypocritical to judge such situations on a myth. I do not encourage anyone to end their life nor would I request such a thing. However, I do support ones choice to die with dignity if facing medical reasoning such as terminal illness. The government should grant such request to honor their citizens. Works Cited http://www.balancedpolitics.org/assisted_suicide.htm http://euthanasia.procon.org/view.resource.php?resourceID=000134 http://www.religioustolerance.org/euthanas.htm http://www.assistedsuicide.org/future_of_right-to-

Somali Pirates and the Response of The United States Essay -- Piracy

To begin, pirates have been prowling the seas as far back as ancient times, such as the â€Å"Phoenicians and Greeks in the Mediterranean.† As well Muslim piracy as Jihad has existed since the 17th Century along the Barbary Coast of North Africa.2 These pirates were known as Barbary corsairs, and they would attack ships from Christian countries, seizing their ships and, and selling the sailors into slavery. Today, Somali pirates are seizing ships and taking hostages for ransom along the waters off the coast of Somali and the Gulf of Aden. The root of the Somali pirates was established then put into motion after the Somali Civil War and the fall of the Barre regime in 1991, the last functioning government.4 Along with the government, also went the countries one time functional coastguard, and thus the Somali waters became the site of a global "free for all," foreign fishing fleets illegally looted Somali fishing stocks and would keep the rudimentarily-equipped Somali fishermen from fishing their own waters, in addition Somali fishermen has accused Europeans of dumping toxic and nuclear waste off Somalia's shore. For these reasons the first pirate gangs materialize in the early 90’s to defend against foreign trawlers.4 Since 2005 these pirate gangs have grown and have been seizing ships holding them and their crews hostage for ransoms that range in the millions of dollars. The pirate assemblage is said to be made up of three different groups of people first, ex-fishermen who are the brains of the group, they kno w the sea, and how to operate the boats.5 Second, the ex-militiamen the muscle of the group, they have fought for the different clan warlords, and know how to use their weapons.5 Finally, the technical expert the computer g... ...PARTMENT OF THE NAVY - NAVAL HISTORY & HERITAGE COMMAND. September 28, 2009. http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/piracy_hornafrica.htm (accessed April 19, 2012). Samatar, Abdi Ismail. "Will the London conference change Somalia's future?" Al Jazeera. Febuary 07, 2012. http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2012/02/20122395853170145.html (accessed April 19, 2012). Tharoor, Ishaan. "How Somalia's Fishermen Became Pirates." TIME WORLD. April 18, 2009. http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1892376,00.html (accessed April 19, 2012). "U.S. Jury Convicts 5 Somali Men in Pirate Attack on Navy Ship." FOX News Network. November 24, 2010. FOX News Network (accessed April 19, 2012). Zijlma, Anouk. "Somali Pirates A Guide to Somalia's Modern Day Pirates." About.com Africa Travel. http://goafrica.about.com/od/africanews/a/pirates.htm (accessed April 19, 2012).

Saturday, August 17, 2019

Banking Industry Essay

The Banking Industry was once a simple and reliable business that took deposits from investors at a lower interest rate and loaned it out to borrowers at a higher rate. However deregulation and technology led to a revolution in the Banking Industry that saw it transformed. Banks have become global industrial powerhouses that have created ever more complex products that use risk and securitisation in models that only PhD students can understand. Through technology development, banking services have become available 24 hours a day, 365 days a week, through ATMs, at online bankings, and in electronically enabled exchanges where everything from stocks to currency futures contracts can be traded . The Banking Industry at its core provides access to credit. In the lenders case, this includes access to their own savings and investments, and interest payments on those amounts. In the case of borrowers, it includes access to loans for the creditworthy, at a competitive interest rate. Banking services include transactional services, such as verification of account details, account balance details and the transfer of funds, as well as advisory services, that help individuals and institutions to properly plan and manage their finances. Online banking channels have become key in the last 10 years. The collapse of the Banking Industry in the Financial Crisis, however, means that some of the more extreme risk-taking and complex securitisation activities that banks increasingly engaged in since 2000 will be limited and carefully watched, to ensure that there is not another banking system meltdown in the future. Mortgage banking has been encompassing for the publicity or promotion of the various mortgage loans to investors as well as individuals in the mortgage business. Online banking services has developed the banking practices easier worldwide. Banking in the small business sector plays an important role. Find various banking services available for small businesses. Management Management in all business and organizational activities is the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals andobjectives using available resources efficiently and effectively. Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and controlling an organization (a group of one or more people or entities) or effort for the purpose of accomplishing a goal.Resourcing encompasses the deployment and manipulation of human resources, financial resources, technological resources, andnatural resources. Since organizations can be viewed as systems, management can also be defined as human action, including design, to facilitate the production of useful outcomes from a system. This view opens the opportunity to ‘manage’ oneself, a prerequisite to attempting to manage others. Basic functions Management operates through various functions, often classified as planning, organizing, staffing, leading/directing, controlling/monitoring and motivation. * Planning: Deciding what needs to happen in the future (today, next week, next month, next year, over the next five years, etc.) and generating plans for action. * Organizing: (Implementation)pattern of relationships among workers, making optimum use of the resources required to enable the successful carrying out of plans. * Staffing: Job analysis, recruitment and hiring for appropriate jobs. * Leading/directing: Determining what must be done in a situation and getting people to do it. * Controlling/monitoring: Checking progress against plans. * Motivation: Motivation is also a kind of basic function of management, because without motivation, employees cannot work effectively. If motivation does not take place in an organization, then employees may not contribute to the other functions (which are usually set by top-level management). Basic roles * Interpersonal: roles that involve coordination and interaction with employees. * Informational: roles that involve handling, sharing, and analyzing information. * Decisional: roles that require decision-making. Management skills * Political: used to build a power base and establish connections. * Conceptual: used to analyze complex situations. * Interpersonal: used to communicate, motivate, mentor and delegate. * Diagnostic: ability to visualize most appropriate response to a situation. * Technical: Expertise in one’s particular functional area.. Business Ethics Business ethics (also corporate ethics) is a form of applied ethics or professional ethics that examines ethical principles and moral or ethical problems that arise in a business environment. It applies to all aspects of business conduct and is relevant to the conduct of individuals and entire organizations. Business ethics has both normative and descriptive dimensions. As a corporate practice and a career specialization, the field is primarily normative. Academics attempting to understand business behavior employ descriptive methods. The range and quantity of business ethical issues reflects the interaction of profit-maximizing behavior with non-economic concerns. Interest in business ethics accelerated dramatically during the 1980s and 1990s, both within major corporations and within academia. For example, today most major corporations promote their commitment to non-economic values under headings such as ethics codes and social responsibility charters. Adam Smith said, â€Å"People of the same trade seldom meet together, even for merriment and diversion, but the conversation ends in a conspiracy against the public, or in some contrivance to raise prices.†[1] Governments use laws and regulations to point business behavior in what they perceive to be beneficial directions. Ethics implicitly regulates areas and details of behavior that lie beyond Business ethics reflects the philosophy of business, one of whose aims is to determine the fundamental purposes of a company. If a company’s purpose is to maximize shareholder returns, then sacrificing profits to other concerns is a violation of its fiduciary responsibility. Corporate entities are legally considered as persons in USA and in most nations. The ‘corporate persons’ are legally entitled to the rights and liabilities due to citizens as persons. Economist Milton Friedman writes that corporate executives’ â€Å"responsibility†¦ generally will be to make as much money as possible while conforming to their basic rules of the society, both those embodied in law and those embodied in ethical custom† Friedman also said, â€Å"the only entities who can have responsibilities are individuals †¦ A business cannot have responsibilities. So the question is, do corporate executives, provided they stay within the law, have responsibilities in their business activities other than to make as much money for their stockholders as possible? And my answer to that is, no, they do not. A multi-country 2011 survey found support for this view among the â€Å"informed public† ranging from 30 to 80%. Duska views Friedman’s argument as consequentialistrather than pragmatic, implying that unrestrained corporate freedom would benefit the most in long term. [ Similarly author business consultant Peter Drucker observed, â€Å"There is neither a separate ethics of business nor is one needed†, implying that standards of personal ethics cover all business situations. However, Peter Drucker in another instance observed that the ultimate responsibility of company directors is not to harm—primum non nocere. Another view of business is that it must exhibit corporate social responsibility (CSR): an umbrella term indicating that an ethical business must act as a responsible citizen of the communities in which it operates even at the cost of profits or other goals.In the US and most other nations corporate entities are legally treated as persons in some respects. For example, they can hold title to property, sue and be sued and are subject to taxation, although their free speech rights are limited. This can be interpreted to imply that they have independent ethical responsibilities. Duska argues that stakeholders have the right to expect a business to be ethical; if business has no ethical obligations, other institutions could make the same claim which would be counterproductive to the corporation. Ethical issues include the rights and duties between a company and its employees, suppliers, customers and neighbors, its fiduciaryresponsibility to its shareholders. Issues concerning relations between different companies include hostile take-overs and industrial espionage. Related issues include corporate governance;corporate social entrepreneurship; political contributions; legal issues such as the ethical debate over introducing a crime of corporate manslaughter; and the marketing of corporations’ ethics policies.According to IBE/ Ipsos MORI research published in late 2012, the three major areas of public concern regarding business ethics in Britain are executive pay, corporate tax avoidance and bribery and corruption.

Friday, August 16, 2019

Ecriture Feminine

Ecriture feminine, literally â€Å"women's writing,†[1]  more closely, the writing of the female body and female disparity in language and text,[2]  is a strain of  feminist literary theory that originated in France  in the early 1970s and included foundational theorists such as  Helene Cixous,  Monique Wittig,  Luce Irigaray,[3]  Chantal Chawaf,[4][5]  and  Julia Kristeva,[6][7]  and also other writers like psychoanalytical theorist  Bracha Ettinger,[8][9]  who joined this field in the early 1990s. [10]  Generally, French feminists tended to focus their attention on language, analyzing the ways in which meaning is produced. They concluded that language as we commonly think of it is a decidedly male realm, which therefore only represents a world from the male point of view. [11] Nonetheless, the French women's movement developed in much the same way as the feminist movements elsewhere in Europe or in the United States: French women participated in consciousness-raising groups; demonstrated in the streets on the  8th of March; fought hard for women's right to choose whether to have children; raised the issue of violence against women; and struggled to change public opinion on issues concerning women and women's rights. The fact that the very first meeting of a handful of would-be feminist activists in 1970 only managed to launch an acrimonious theoretical debate, would seem to mark the situation as typically ‘French' in its apparent insistence on the primacy of theory over politics. [12] Helene Cixous  first coined  ecriture feminine  in her essay, â€Å"The Laugh of the Medusa† (1975), where she asserts â€Å"Woman must write her self: must write about women and bring women to writing, from which they have been driven away as violently as from their bodies† because their sexual pleasure has been repressed and denied expression. Inspired by Cixous' essay, a recent book titledLaughing with Medusa  (2006) analyzes the collective work of Julia Kristeva, Luce Irigaray, Bracha Ettinger and Helene Cixous. [13]  These writers are as a whole referred to by Anglophones as â€Å"the French feminists,† though Mary Klages, Associate Professor in the English Department at the University of Colorado at Boulder, has pointed out that â€Å"poststructuralist theoretical feminists† would be a more accurate term. [14]  Madeleine Gagnon is a more recent proponent. And since the aforementioned 1975 when Cixous also founded women's studies at Vincennes, she has been as a spokeswoman for the group Psychanalyse et politique and a prolific writer of texts for their publishing house, des femmes. And when asked of her own writing she says, â€Å"Je suis la ou ca parle† (â€Å"I am there where it/id/the female unconscious speaks. â€Å")  [15] American feminist critic and writer  Elaine Showalter  defines this movement as â€Å"the inscription of the feminine body and female difference in language and text. [16]  Ecriture feminine places experience before language, and privileges non-linear, cyclical writing that evades â€Å"the discourse that regulates the  phallocentric  system. â€Å"[17]  Because language is not a neutral medium, the argument can be made that it functions as an instrument of patriarchal expression. Peter Barry writes that â€Å"the female writer is seen as suffering the handicap of having to use a mediu m (prose writing) which is essentially a male instrument fashioned for male purposes†. 18]  Ecriture feminine thus exists as an antithesis of masculine writing, or as a means of escape for women,although the phallogocentric argument itself has been criticised by W. A. Borody as misrepresenting the history of philosophies of ‘’indeterminateness’’ in Western culture. Borody claims that the‘black and white’’view that the masculine=determinateness and the feminine=indeterminateness contains a degree of cultural and historical validity, but not when it is deployed to self-replicate a similar form of gender-othering it originally sought to overcome. 19]  In the words of Rosemarie Tong, â€Å"Cixous challenged women to write themselves out of the world men constructed for women. She urged women to put themselves-the unthinkable/unthought-into words. †[20] Almost everything is yet to be written by women about femininity: about their sexuality, that is, its infinite and mobile complexity; about their eroticization, sudden turn-ons of a certain minuscule-immense area of their bodies; not about destiny, but about the adventure of such and such a drive, about trips, crossings, trudges, abrupt and gradual awakenings, discoveries of a zone at once timorous and soon to be forthright. 14] With regard to phallocentric writing, Tong explains that â€Å"male sexuality, which centers on what Cixous called the â€Å"big dick†, is ultimately boring in its pointedness and singularity. Like male sexuality, masculine writing, which Cixous usually termed phallogocentric writing, is also ultimately boring† and furthermore, that â€Å"stamped with the official seal of social approval, masculine writing is too weighted down to move or change†. 20] Write, let no one hold you back, let nothing stop you: not man; not the imbecilic capitalist machinery, in which the publishing houses are the crafty, obsequiou s relayers of imperatives handed down by an economy that works against us and off our backs; not  yourself. Smug-faced readers, managing editors, and big bosses don't like the true texts of women- female-sexed texts. That kind scares them. [21] For Cixous, ecriture feminine is not only a possibility for female writers; rather, she believes it can be (and has been) employed by male authors such as  James Joyce. Some have found this idea difficult to reconcile with Cixous’ definition of ecriture feminine (often termed ‘white ink’) because of the many references she makes to the female body (â€Å"There is always in her at least a little of that good mother’s milk. She writes in white ink†[22]) when characterizing the essence of ecriture feminine and explaining its origin. This notion raises problems for some theorists: â€Å"Ecriture feminine, then, is by its nature transgressive, rule-transcending, intoxicated, but it is clear that the notion as put forward by Cixous raises many problems. The realm of the body, for instance, is seen as somehow immune to social and gender condition and able to issue forth a pure essence of the feminine. Such essentialism is difficult to square with feminism which emphasizes femininity as a social construction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ [23] For Luce Irigaray, women's sexual pleasure  jouissance  cannot be expressed by the dominant, ordered, â€Å"logical,† masculine language because according to Kristeva, feminine language is derived from the pre-oedipal period of fusion between mother and child. Associated with the maternal, feminine language is not only a threat to culture, which is patriarchal, but also a medium through which women may be creative in new ways. Irigaray expressed this connection between women's sexuality and women's language through the following analogy: women's  jouissance  is more multiple than men's unitary, phallic pleasure because  [24] â€Å"woman has sex organs just about everywhere†¦ feminine language is more diffusive than its ‘masculine counterpart'. That is undoubtedly the reason†¦ her language†¦ goes off in all directions and†¦ e is unable to discern the coherence. †Ã‚  [25] Irigaray and Cixous also go on to emphasize that women, historically limited to being sexual objects for men (virgins or prostitutes, wives or mothers), have been prevented from expressing their sexuality in itself or for themselves. If they can do this, and if they can speak about it in the new languages it calls for, they will establ ish a point of view (a site of difference) from which phallogocentric concepts and controls can be seen through and taken apart, not only in theory, but also in practice. 26] ————————————————- [edit]Notes 1. ^  Baldick, Chris. Oxford Concise Dictionary of Literary Terms. OUP, 1990. 65. 2. ^  Showalter, Elaine. Critical Inquiry, Vol. 8, No. 2, Writing and Sexual Difference, (Winter, 1981), pp. 179-205. Published by: The University of Chicago Press. http://www. jstor. org/stable/1343159 3. ^  Irigaray, Luce,  Speculum of the Other Woman, Cornell University Press, 1985 4. ^  Cesbron, Georges, † Ecritures au feminin. Propositions de lecture pour quatre livres de femmes† in Degre Second, juillet 1980: 95-119 5.   Mistacco, Vicki, â€Å"Chantal Chawaf,† in Les femmes et la tradition litteraire – Anthologie du Moyen Age a nos jours; Seconde p artie: XIXe-XXIe siecles, Yale Press, 2006, 327-343 6. ^  Kristeva, Julia  Revolution in Poetic Language, Columbia University Press, 1984 7. ^  Griselda Pollock, â€Å"To Inscribe in the Feminine: A Kristevan Impossibility? Or Femininity, Melancholy and Sublimation. †Ã‚  Parallax, n. 8, [Vol. 4(3)], 1998. 81-117. 8. ^  Ettinger, Bracha,  Matrix . Halal(a) – Lapsus. Notes on Painting, 1985-1992. MOMA, Oxford, 1993. (ISBN 0-905836-81-2). Reprinted in:  Artworking 1985-1999. Edited by Piet Coessens. Ghent-Amsterdam: Ludion / Brussels: Palais des Beaux-Arts, 2000. (ISBN 90-5544-283-6) 9. ^  Ettinger, Bracha,  The Matrixial Borderspace  (essays 1994-1999), Minnesota University Press, 2006 10. ^  Pollock, Griselda, â€Å"Does Art Think? â€Å", in:  Art and Thought  Blackwell, 2003 11. ^  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Murfin, Ross C. †Ã‚  http://www. ux1. eiu. edu/~rlbeebe/what_is_feminist_criticism. pdf 12. ^  Moi, Toril, ed. French Feminist Thought. Basil Blac kwell Ltd, 1987. (ISBN 0-631-14972-4) 13.   Zajko, Vanda and Leonard, Miriam,  Laughing with Medusa. Oxford University Press, 2006 14. ^  a  b  Klages, Mary. â€Å"Helene Cixous: The Laugh of the Medusa. † 15. ^  Jones, Ann Rosalind. Feminist Studies, Vol. 7, No. 2 (Summer, 1981), pp. 247-263. Published by: Feminist Studies, Inc. http://www. jstor. org/stable/3177523 16. ^  Showalter, Elaine. â€Å"Feminist Criticism in the Wilderness. †Ã‚  The New Feminist Criticism: essays on women, literature, and theory. Elaine Showalter, ed. London: Virago, 1986. 249. 17. ^  Cixous, Helene. â€Å"The Laugh of the Medusa. †Ã‚  New French Feminisms. Elaine Marks and Isabelle de Courtivron, eds. New York: Schocken, 1981. 253. 18. ^  Barry, Peter. Beginning Theory  : An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory. New York: Manchester UP, 2002. 126 19. ^  Wayne A. Borody (1998) pp. 3, 5 Figuring the Phallogocentric Argument with Respect to the Classical Greek Philosophical Tradition Nebula: A Netzine of the Arts and Science, Vol. 13 (pp. 1-27) (http://kenstange. com/nebula/feat013/feat013. html) . 20. ^  a  b  Tong, Rosemarie Putnam. Feminist Thought  : A More Comprehensive Introduction. New York: Westview P, 2008. 276. 1. ^  Helene Cixous, Summer 1976. 22. ^  Klages, Mary. â€Å"Helene Cixous: ‘The Laugh of the Medusa. 23. ^  Barry, Peter. Beginning Theory  : An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory. New York: Manchester UP, 2002. 128. 24. ^  Murfin, Ross C. http://www. ux1. eiu. edu/~rlbeebe/what_is_feminist_criticism. pdf 25. ^  Irigaray, Luce. This Sex. 26. ^  Jones, Ann Rosalind. Fem inist Studies, Vol. 7, No. 2 (Summer, 1981), pp. 247-263. Published by: Feminist Studies, Inc. http://www. jstor. org/stable/3177523. ————————————————- [edit]External links

Thursday, August 15, 2019

Software Testing in Safety Critical Systems

Abstract Today, many safety-critical applications are controlled by computer software. Therefore effective testing tools are required to provide a high degree of safety and to reduce severe failures too minimum. The paper examines existing regulating standards in safety-critical systems. By comparing different software testing methods the requirements and challenges in safety-critical software testing are being evaluated. The QUICKIES standard serves as the mall regulatory framework for all separately systems and provides the basis for the creation of application- and Interdependently tankards.Moreover it defines certain safety integrity levels depending on the field of application and recommends testing methods according to these levels. In model- based safety testing a usage model with restricted space state domain is used to generate representative test cases. Statistical testing is a mathematical approach that uses a high number of test cases to reach a significant result. The ma in challenge of all safety-related testing methods Is to reduce testing time and complexity without distorting the significance of the test.These can for example be transportation systems, power plants, and medical applications. As people's lives depend on the correct function of such control systems and their software, thorough testing is required before they can be admitted to operation. There are many different software testing methods. Most of them only analyze the probability of a failure but do not value its severity. However, in safety-critical systems a failure that has severe consequences, even if it is extremely rare, can not be accepted. Therefore testing in this field has to be adopted accordingly.The purpose of this paper is to find and compare the latest methods for safety-critical footwear testing and to identify the most common industry standard in this field. Moreover the requirements and challenges in safety-critical software testing will be elaborated. At the begi nning the paper will provide definitions that are required for the understanding of the subsequent chapters. After that, an introduction to the JUICE 508 safety standard, which serves as a basis for most industry-specific standards, is given.The chapter â€Å"Testing Methods† will address some of the latest safety-related software testing methods in detail. 5 Definitions 2 Definitions 2. 1 Reliability and Safety In safety critical systems both, reliability and safety are required to achieve the goals of dependability. However, reliability and safety are two different attributes of dependability. The reliability, R(t) , of a system is a function of time. It is defined as the conditional probability that the system will perform its intended function in a defined way over a given time period and under certain specified and assumed conditions.The most used parameter to characterize reliability is the Mean Time To Failure (MATT). The safety, S(t), of a system is defined as the pro bability that a system ill either perform its functions correctly or will discontinue its functions in a way that does not interrupt the operation of other systems or Jeopardize the safety of any people associated with the system [1]. Based on these definitions, in reliability testing all failures are weighted equally, whereas in safety testing the failures are weighted according to their severity.Therefore, a reliable system may be quite unsafe and a safe system may be very unreliable. 2. 2 Safety-critical System States very complex to generate. As many states are unreachable or very difficult to reach hey can be reduced to a relatively small number of representative system states. These states are grouped in three subsets: Normal State Subset (NUNS), Fail-Safe State subset (FPS) and Risky state subset (IRS). Their relationships are: s=Unusualness; 6 Their inter-dependability is described as a Markova chain (see figure 1) [2]. Figure 1 : Three-state Markova Model for Safety-critica l Systems(Source: 2. Markova Chain Usage Model The Markova chain usage model describes the possible usage of a software based on a predicted environment. It can be used to generate statistical test cases and to estimate the software reliability. In an Markova model the transition from operation I to operation J can be denoted by an ordered pair . Let be the transition probability from operation I to operation J, with and EX=I .. N p(is)=1, where n is the number of operations. The transitions and transition probabilities can be represented in the form of a matrix [3].Each specific usage of the program corresponds to a path X=(XI, XX,†¦ Xi) in the Markova chain where Xi corresponds to the I-the operation. P(Xi, X]) determines the next executed operation J after execution of operation I. Since the operations are random rabbles, each path X=(XI, XX,†¦ ) forms a stochastic process. For a particular path x=(ox, XSL ,†¦ ), the corresponding path execution probability is [3]: 7 pox pop , x 3 Standards There exist both national and international standards and guidelines at different depths and classifications which define requirements for safety-related technologies. Yester and provides the basis for the creation of application- and underspecified standards. It includes more than 500 pages of normative and informative specifications and proposals. Nowadays most safety-related standards are based on he JUICE 508 in combination with the previously applicable requirements [4]. The JUICE 508 defines so called Safety Integrity Levels (Sills) which serve as a measure for the safety requirements on a certain system. The following table shows the different SILLS as well as the corresponding probability of failure and application examples.Probability of Failure One Failure in x Years Consequences Application Example The last three parts, are informative and include practical examples which should help to simplify the application of the standard. The ‘CE 61 508 describes the complete life cycle of safety-related systems from planning to decommissioning and refers to all aspects related to the use and requirements for electrical / electronic / programmable electronic systems (E / E / PEE) for separately functions [4]. According to the focus of this paper only the parts relating to software testing are mentioned in the following paragraph. Figure 2 shows the verification and validation process in software development according to the JUICE 508 standard.The E/E/PEE system safety requirements are applied both on the system architecture and the software specifications. Every level in the system architecture verifies if it meets the requirements of the next higher layer (I. E. Coding fulfills module design requirements, module design fulfills software yester design requirements etc. ). Moreover each system architecture layer is tested by a specific test. As soon as the test circuit is closed successfully the software can be validated. The st andard also recommends and rates certain test methods according to the required SILL. In order to meet the requirements of the ‘CE standard a series.Test methods comprised in the ‘CE 61 508 are categorized as follows [6]: Failure analysis (I. E. Cause consequence programs) Dynamic analysis and testing (I. E. Test case execution from model-based test case generation) Functional and black box testing (I. . Equivalence classes and input partition testing, including boundary value analysis) Performance testing (I. E. Response timings and memory constraints) Static analysis (I. E. Static analysis of run time error behavior) 9 Figure 2: ‘CE 61 508-3 Verification and Validation Process(Source: 10 Testing Methods 4 Testing Methods There are many different software testing methods.A detailed introduction to all different methods would be far beyond the scope of this paper. Therefore the author will only mention two methods he deems most relevant in the field of safety-relat ed software testing. Finally both methods are compared and their possible application areas are evaluated. 4. 1 Model-based Safety Testing In model-based testing explicit behavior models that encode the intended behavior of a system and its environment are used. These models generate pairs of inputs and outputs. The output of such a model represents the expected output of the system under test (SOT). Mineral model-based testing method. The system safety-related behavior is defined in the safety requirements specification. Test cases are derived from a safety model that is extracted from the SHUT and from formal safety requirements. This model encodes the intended behavior and maps each possible input to the corresponding output. Safety test selection criteria relate to the functional safety of the safety- critical system, to the structure of the model (state coverage, transition coverage), and also to a well defined set of system faults.Safety test case specifications are used to fo rmalize the safety test selection criteria and render them operational. For the given safety model and the safety test case specification, an automatic safety test case generator and optimizer generates the safety test case suite. Finally, the concreted input part of a test case is submitted to the SHUT and the SOT's output is recorded. The concentration of the input part of a test case is performed by a safety test engine. Besides executing the safety case, it can also compare the output of the SHUT with the expected output as provided by the safety test case [6]. 1 Figure 3: Model-based Safety Testing according Gang You et al. (Source: Test Case Generation One of the most commonly tools for test case generation are model checking techniques. The main purpose of model checking is to verify a formal safety property (given as a logic formula) on a system model. In test case generation, model checking is used in order to find violations of certain formal safety properties. Safety mode ls of safety-critical software systems may have a huge number of states. Therefore the greatest challenge when using a model checker is to cope with the state space explosion.As a countermeasure, Gang You et al. ‘s approach applies the safety model, which is derived from SHUT and certain safety requirements. The model 12 limits the number of states by splitting them into three subsets (NUNS, FPS, IRS) containing only representative states (see 2. X). Moreover the safety model encodes he intended behavior, and from its structure, safety test cases can be derived. It thereby restricts the possible inputs into the SHUT and the set of possible separately behaviors of the SOT.Hence, to reduce the amount of testing and guarantee the quality of testing the model checker will search those most frequently entered states and generate the corresponding safety test cases without searching the whole state spaces. The selection of states is based on the safety requirements (Sills). Generall y speaking, the safety model can be seen as a test selection criterion generate safety-related test cases. Figure 4 shows the corresponding flow chart. 1 . The system safety model in the form of a finite state machine (FSML) is transformed into the input language of the model checker tool (SPIN) 2.Each test requirement of a given safety criterion is formulated as a temporal logic expression (LET). 3. Based on the Markova model of a system, the state space is divided into three subsets. 4. In term of these subsets, the negation of each expression of the formula is verified by the model checker. If there is an execution path in the model that does not satisfy the negated formula then it is presented by the model checker as a counter-example. This path becomes a test sequence that satisfies the original test requirement. 5.The inputs and outputs that form the executable test case are extracted from the counter-example or are derived by a corresponding guided simulation of the model. 13 Figure 4: Test Case Generation Framework according Gang You et al. (Source: 4. 2 Statistical Testing As already mentioned in 2. 1 reliability is defined as the conditional probability that the system will perform its intended function. This chapter will link the reliability of a system with the Markova usage model (see 2. 3). Let f: be a function that shows the failure probability of a software. The argument D represents the possible usage set of the software.Each element AXED is a usage path from quo (initial operation) to send (final operation) The relation between software reliability R and failure probability F is: R=l -F (2). In the assumed model the failure behavior of the software only depends on its usage path X and not on the input. This means that the input domain corresponding to the used X is homogeneous. The simplest way of obtaining unbiased reliability estimation of the software is to select N test paths XSL, XX, †¦ , CNN according to the usage model. The exult of the function f(Xi) is 1 if the path fails and O otherwise.Then the arithmetic 14 mean of f(Xi) is an unbiased estimate PEP(f(X)), which is the mathematical expectation of the software failure probability under transition matrix P. Hence, the software reliability can be expressed as R=l -PEP(f(X)) [3]. Critical operations are infrequently executed in real applications. This generates the problem that development organizations have to spend too much time when performing adequate statistical testing. Although one can overcome these drawbacks by increasing the execution probabilities of critical operations during statistical entire software under test. Yang Going et al. 3] found a possible approach to overcome this problem: Importance Sampling (IS) Based Safety-critical Software Statistical Testing Acceleration. IS Based Safety-critical Software Statistical Testing Acceleration This chapter presents the Is-based software statistical testing acceleration method. It ensures that the cr itical operations tested adequately by adjusting the transition probabilities in the matrix of the usage model, and at the same time, produces the unbiased reliability of the software under test. The IS technique reduces simulation run times hen estimating the probabilities of rare events by Monte Carlo simulations [3].For complex software with a large model matrix, the simulation procedure is often extremely time consuming. To overcome this problem, Yang Going et al. ‘s approach adopts a simulated annealing algorithm to calculate the optimal matrix Q. This widely used optimization method employs stochastic techniques to avoid being trapped in local optimal solution. The 16 exact mathematical explanation of this algorithm is complex and would be out of the scope of this paper. [3] 4. 3 Method Comparison Although model-based and statistical testing follow completely different approaches, the challenges are very similar.Both methods have to limit the extent and complexity of tes ting. Model-based testing reduces the number of test cases by restricting the state space domain of the Markova chain usage model. Whereas statistical testing reduces the number by changing the relation between critical and normal test cases with help off likelihood ratio. 5 Conclusion Today an increasing number of safety-critical applications are controlled by computer software. Therefore effective testing tools are required to provide a high degree of safety and to reduce severe failures to a minimum. The paper focused on

Wednesday, August 14, 2019

Hartwick College Essay

In this extract, we are shown insight into what Pips character has become, by reacquainting him with the convict Magwitch. In this second visit, we can see the contrast between Pips first encounter, and this more shocking scene – how Pips persona has changed from an innocent youth, to a selfish, egocentric ‘gentleman. ‘ Also, we are given the startling revelation of Pip’s true benefactor, in a cumulative peak of excitement enriched with Dickens unique writing style. Throughout the text, Pip’s manner towards others, his way of thinking and even his narrative voice transform to create two reasonably different characters. The extract pictures him as a selfish, pompous young man who shows great ingratitude towards Magwitch – asking â€Å"inhospitably enough† whether he would like to come in and pushing away a plea for affection, from one who has worked hard all his life merely to provide Pip with a great wealth, and an undemanding lifestyle. When Magwitch returns to greet his beneficiary, he is treated with less than minor courtesy. Pip’s younger character however appears far more innocent, showing respect and even compassion towards a convict, who threatens and oppresses him, glad that his stolen food is â€Å"enjoyed† by a complete stranger. This highlights a stark contrast between the Pip displayed in the extract, and Pips younger self. Indeed Dickens seems to point out the irony of such a title – at the point in time when society considers him ‘gentleman’ he is anything but gentle – instead he appears malicious and critical of his former friend Joe whose visit he awaits with â€Å"mortification. † The wealthy gentleman is now a moral shadow of the impoverished yet guiltless Pip we are introduced to at the beginning of the story. His simultaneous ascent to aristocracy and fall into selfish spendthrift, leading to his subsequent redemption, are reminiscent of the ‘education’ novel popular at the time. These tales of ‘apprenticeship’ were often of mistreated orphans who managed to become wealthy and successful. The stories featured the many obstacles that the hero/heroine would have to overcome, and their popularity peaked around Dickens time. Typically, they explore â€Å"the youth and young adulthood of a sensitive protagonist† who is â€Å"in search of the meaning of life and the nature of the world† (David Cody, Associate Professor of English, Hartwick College.) They tended to contain autobiographical elements, and were sometimes influenced by contemporary social and industrial transformations. There are also some other genres on which the story touches upon, namely the ‘sensation novel’ – the numerable plot twists and shocking revelations form a large part of the structure – in this extract we see the startling disclosure of Pips true benefactor, which most contemporaneous readers would perhaps not have guessed. Indeed, these climatic scenes are pivotal to the books success as a serialisation, as well as a novel. To maintain interest in a book that is staged in weekly instalments, Dickens uses a variety of sub-plots to keep the reader engrossed. This eccentric writing style gives the text a unique quality, and the overall effect on the reader is one of shock and intrigue. The rendezvous with the convict in the graveyard, and his death, Miss Havisham’s fire, and the showdown with Orlick are among the most memorable climax’s we experience – as well as Pips second meeting with Magwitch. In this passage, we can see how the writer cultivates tension and makes the most of Magwitch’s secret. When extract reaches a pinnacle of excitement, many sentences become long and drawn out, and sentence complexity increases, leaving the shorter, snappier â€Å"why, Wemmick† and â€Å"would it be J? † to further promote interest in the plot, and give a tense, nervous atmosphere. As the scene draws to its zenith, as Pip’s â€Å"heart (beats) like a heavy hammer of disordered action,† we see powerful metaphors, and repetition of prominent, emotive language (â€Å"dangers, disgraces, consequences†) to give a sense of anxiety and intensify the scene. Language is also used here to alienate the convict from Pip himself. The rich, throaty slang of Magwitch’s â€Å"arterwards,† â€Å"spec’lated† and â€Å"warmint† contrasts against Pip’s more noble speeches of how he â€Å"cannot wish to renew that chance intercourse† and inquires of the messenger â€Å"since he undertook that trust. † The way Dickens estranges Magwitch from Pip is significant: it symbolizes the delusional notion that Pip is a gentleman, and that he is superior to the convict. Pip believes himself to be changed since that first chance meeting in the graveyard, and thinks that he is now above Magwitch, who is after all a criminal. The irony experienced by the reader is that Pip’s great wealth and upper class lifestyle is solely attributable to Magwitch himself, and this too is the source of the shock Pip describes. The way Dickens depicts Pips feelings is extremely powerful, as we see Pip â€Å"suffocating† merely from the shock of this news, news that his almost successful attempt to become a gentleman was funded by the dark relic of his youth, who’s felonious past appears further from gentry as is possible. This is of course, not the first time we see Pip’s character interrupted by members of his childhood – there was his meeting with Mr Pocket on his arrival to London, and more important, Joe’s visit to Pip in his London flat. This meeting, like the one with Magwitch we see in the extract, stresses the change we have seen in Pip’s character by comparing his manner towards someone he knew as a boy, and how he acts towards them now. Upon his visit, Joe is not treated with hostility as such, but Pip denotes that he â€Å"certainly would have paid money† to keep him from coming. As a boy, Pip always stayed friends with Joe despite his obvious stupidity and clumsiness, yet now he wishes more than anything to avoid him. Pips dismissal of Joe in this way turns the reader against him slightly – up until now we have supported Pip as the ‘good guy. ‘ Pips corruption from an innocent youngster to a snide gentleman, and then back into a more honourable businessman. This cycle of purity, corruption and redemption is an ongoing theme in Great Expectations, and makes subtle references to Christian beliefs of how the life of greed and sin that Pip lived in London, on the wealth of a convict, lead to a corroded innocence that was only liberated through his consequent illness and then his new beginning with Estella. The other theme that appears in the novel, is that of justice and the just punishment of crime. We first see this in the appearance of a convict (though this method of punishment was stopped in 1868 several years after the novel was written) and Dickens portrayal of him as an honest man, who admits to the theft of â€Å"some broken wittles† and â€Å"a dram of liquor† to save Pip from his sister, Mrs Joe. And again, Mrs Joe herself ties in to the punishment theme, her harsh disciplining of her husband and brother again lets us sympathise with those who are chastised, and not the chastisers. Later in the book, we see another example of this when Magwitch is caught. And more subtle instances of punishment such as Mrs Havisham burning for her corruption of Estella (corruption almost being a theme in itself) are also present in the text, giving us a thorough impression of how those who commit crime will always be brought to justice. The time setting of the novel allows Dickens to include these ideas of corporal punishment, convicts and public hangings. To a modern reader, these archaic, brutal methods of upholding the law appear old-fashioned. However, readers of the time would most probably have experienced these events fist-hand, in one way or another. Moral preaching’s of more passive action towards prisoners and criminals would be relatively new to them, whereas nowadays such views are accepted as standard. The feelings created by the views Dickens has on delinquency, and its retribution, are therefore significantly different between readers of-the-time and present day students. As a modern audience, we also feel compelled, excited, and fascinated by the books intricate plotlines, particularly in this extract. To inspire such strong emotions, Dickens uses many lingual and structural functions, the aforementioned effectiveness of metaphors and imagery to name one. He also writes in the 1st person, which is pivotal to the feelings the book creates: the story is far more personal and involving. Dickens also entwines his plots and subplots very carefully to create a prominent air of tension. As he builds up to the climax of one plot twist, he continues to insert little mini-dramas that leave us waiting for the main storyline to continue. He does this quite often in the novel, and it makes the reading most tense and far less predictable. To a less observant reader, Magwitch’s return would be a complete surprise – this is where the majority of this extract’s attraction lies. Overall, this extract is in fact one of the most outstanding scenes in the book. The build up of excitement before the final revelation of â€Å"Pip – your him! † is done with a variety of complex, literary devices, and the twist in the plot and return of a familiar character add to its success. It calls attention to Pip’s new assumed role, as a self-centred ungrateful gentleman, and is characteristic of Dickens writing style.